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| Sky-caves in Mustang, Nepal. Image Source: Jean-Marie Hullot, CC BY 2.0 |
Dr. Aldenderfer's journey started when he was just a kid, flipping through his uncle's old medical books filled with pictures of ancient animals. But as he grew up, he realized he was more interested in ancient humans than dinosaurs. It wasn't until he took an anthropology class in college that his passion for archaeology was reignited.
His research has taken him to some incredible places, like Upper Mustang near the Tibetan border. There, he discovered ancient sky caves that held clues about how people lived thousands of years ago. Through his work, Dr. Aldenderfer found out that the first people to settle in the Himalayas came from the north, not the south as many thought.
But it's not just about digging up old stuff. Dr. Aldenderfer's work also shows how people in ancient times traded goods with faraway places and adapted to living in high-altitude areas. And he believes that by working together with experts from different fields, we can learn even more about the past.
(Mark S. Aldenderfer, born in 1950, is an American scholar renowned for his work in anthropology and archaeology. He currently holds the prestigious title of MacArthur Professor of Anthropology at the University of California, Merced, where he previously served as the Dean of the School of Social Sciences, Humanities, and Arts. With a rich academic background, Aldenderfer has held professorial positions at esteemed institutions such as the University of Arizona and the University of California, Santa Barbara. He earned his Ph.D. from Penn State University in 1977. Aldenderfer's expertise lies in comparative studies of high-altitude adaptation and innovative approaches to quantitative methods in archaeology. Additionally, he has made significant contributions to the field as an editor for various anthropology and archaeology journals.)
Please note that this chat has been edited for brevity and clarity, focusing on key points and maintaining coherence:
What ignited your passion for
archaeology and anthropology, and how did you ultimately decide to pursue a
career in these fields?
My interest in archaeology began in childhood. I had an uncle who left many of his medical textbooks at my grandparents' house where I lived. Some of those books contained the bones of ancient animals: fossils and dinosaurs. Initially, I thought archaeology was solely about studying ancient animals. However, as I matured just a bit, I realized that my true fascination lay with humans: ancient humans, not ancient dinosaurs. By fifth grade, I already harbored the ambition to become an archaeologist. However, as I progressed through school, from high school to college, I somewhat lost sight of this ambition. It was during my college years that I had a girlfriend who had just taken an anthropology course. She encouraged me to take it, insisting that it was tailored for me. Following her advice, I enrolled, and that course reignited my passion for archaeology and the study of the past. I am grateful to her for reminding me of my childhood aspirations. At that point, I hadn't yet formulated a clear career path, but I was certain that I wanted to delve into archaeology and explore the lives of ancient people.
What sparked your interest
specifically in the Himalayan region, and Nepal in particular, as a focus for
your research?
My interest in the Himalayan region, particularly Nepal, was sparked by my
extensive research in high-altitude areas throughout my career. Initially, my
focus was on places like Peru, where I studied the process of lowlanders
adapting to life at high elevations—around 3000 to 4000 meters. Throughout 25 to 30 years, I delved into questions like: How do people without genetic
adaptation to high altitude adjust? How do they acquire the necessary genetics
and learn to thrive in such environments?
Building on this foundation, I sought to apply these insights to new
territories. Tibet became my next destination, although navigating research
there proved challenging due to political complexities. Nevertheless, over a
decade, I managed to conduct intermittent research in Tibet until it became
untenable for political reasons.
Just as I was transitioning away from Tibet, a serendipitous opportunity arose. Western colleagues invited me to join a project exploring the sky caves in Upper Mustang. This region near the Tibetan border, offered a perfect convergence of high elevation and cultural context—its inhabitants tracing their ethnic origins to Tibet. Thus, for the past 15 years, my research has centered on Upper Mustang, where I continue to explore the interplay of altitude, culture, and human adaptation.
Can you share the story behind your initial research endeavors in Nepal? What were your motivations, and what were the primary objectives you hoped to achieve?
The genesis of my research endeavors in Nepal was driven by a fundamental
question: how do lowlanders transition into highlanders? This question stemmed
from my earlier work in high-altitude regions like Peru, where I explored the
mechanisms by which people adapt to life at elevations of 3000 to 4000 meters.
In Nepal, the lack of archaeological research in the Himalayas presented an
intriguing opportunity. Regions like Bhutan, Sikkim, and even parts of India
have seen minimal archaeological exploration, leaving a significant gap in our
understanding of early human habitation in these areas. My aim was clear: to
uncover the origins of the initial inhabitants of the Himalayas—did they
migrate from lowland areas, or were they already adapted to high-altitude
living?
The discovery of sky caves in Upper Mustang provided a tangible avenue for
exploration. These sites held the promise of revealing crucial data points that
could shed light on the early inhabitants of the Himalayas. Thus, my research
objectives crystallized around two main questions: Who were the first people to
inhabit the Himalayas, and where did they come from? The pursuit of answers to
these questions fueled my interest and drove the trajectory of the project
forward.
Over your years of work in the Nepal
Himalayas, what standout experiences or obstacles have you encountered during
your fieldwork?
My years of work in the Nepal Himalayas have been marked by both remarkable
experiences and significant obstacles. On the positive side, the hospitality
and kindness of the people we've encountered have been truly heartening. We've
forged meaningful friendships in the regions where we conducted our research.
Moreover, the discoveries we've made have fundamentally altered our
understanding of Himalayan history. For instance, we've debunked the notion
that South Asian populations were the initial inhabitants of the region;
instead, our findings indicate that the first settlers migrated from the
Tibetan Plateau.
However, our work has not been without challenges. The harsh environmental
conditions present logistical hurdles, particularly in places like Upper
Mustang, where access to water and resources is limited. Additionally, there's
often a sense of skepticism or misunderstanding among local communities
regarding the purpose of archaeological research. Some residents are uncertain
about our intentions and worry about the potential impacts on their livelihoods
and cultural heritage.
Addressing these concerns requires diligent communication and education. We
strive to reassure communities that our aim is to understand and preserve their
past, not exploit it. Yet, despite our efforts, there have been instances where
communities have opposed our work, citing fears of artifact theft,
environmental contamination, or spiritual disturbance.
Navigating these challenges calls for a delicate balance of respect, transparency, and patience. While we've encountered setbacks, we remain committed to fostering trust and collaboration with local communities. Ultimately, our goal is to conduct ethical and meaningful research that benefits both scientific understanding and the well-being of the communities we study.
How has your perception of the
Himalayan region evolved through your research efforts and interactions with
local communities?
Through my research and interactions with local communities in the
Himalayan region, my perception has undergone a significant evolution. A
profound realization that has emerged is the immense hardship faced by the
inhabitants of Upper Mustang. Witnessing their daily struggles has provided
invaluable insights into the challenges of life in this rugged terrain.
Moreover, these interactions have sparked curiosity about the lifestyles of
ancient people in the region. Observing how contemporary communities navigate
their environment has prompted questions about historical settlement patterns
and mobility. For instance, I ponder whether early inhabitants lived in the
region year-round or if they, like modern residents, migrated seasonally.
Understanding the rhythms of life in Upper Mustang—where residents descend
to lower elevations during the harsh winter months—has reshaped my approach to
archaeological inquiry. It has prompted me to consider how factors like
climate, resource availability, and cultural practices may have influenced
ancient settlement patterns and human mobility.
My interactions with local communities have not only deepened my appreciation for the resilience and ingenuity of Himalayan people but also informed my scientific inquiry. By bridging the gap between past and present, these experiences have enriched my understanding of the region's history and inspired new avenues of research.
What unique challenges or
characteristics have you encountered while conducting archaeological research
in high-altitude environments like the Nepal Himalayas?
Conducting archaeological research in high-altitude environments like the
Nepal Himalayas presents a unique set of challenges and characteristics.
Firstly, the weather can be a significant obstacle, particularly during the
monsoon season. Working in heavy rain or extreme conditions can hinder
excavation efforts and pose safety risks for researchers.
The logistics of accessing remote sites in mountainous terrain
can be arduous, especially in regions where infrastructure is limited.
Treacherous paths and unpredictable weather conditions can make transportation
difficult and increase the complexity of fieldwork.
One of the most critical considerations when working at high elevations is
the risk of altitude-related illnesses, such as acute mountain sickness.
Bringing lowlanders, including students and researchers, to these altitudes
requires careful medical monitoring to prevent potentially life-threatening
conditions like pulmonary edema or cerebral edema. Unfortunately, instances of
severe altitude sickness among team members have occurred, necessitating swift
evacuation and medical intervention.
The nature of archaeological exploration in these
environments often involves utilizing climbing gear and techniques to access
cave sites or cliff dwellings. While these methods are essential for reaching
remote locations, they also come with inherent risks. Accidents, such as falls
from ropes or climbing mishaps, have occurred, requiring emergency evacuations
and posing challenges to ongoing research efforts.
The primary challenges of conducting archaeological research in high-altitude environments revolve around access, weather conditions, and the health risks associated with altitude sickness. Mitigating these challenges requires careful planning, specialized training, and a thorough understanding of the unique demands of working in such environments.
How have your research methodologies
and approaches evolved over time, and what innovations have you implemented
along the way?
Over the past five decades, there has been a significant evolution in
archaeological methodologies and approaches, primarily due to technological
advancements. When I began my career, we posed intriguing questions about
ancient societies but struggled to answer them due to limitations in available
technologies. For instance, we pondered the diets of past people, their
domesticated animals, and the process of animal domestication itself. However,
without advanced tools, finding concrete answers was challenging.
Today, we're fortunate to have access to groundbreaking technologies that
have revolutionized archaeological research. For example, the advent of ancient
DNA analysis has enabled us to delve deeper into the past. We can now trace
genetic lineages and identify ancestral connections between ancient populations
and present-day groups. This has provided unprecedented insights into the
origins and movements of ancient people, such as those inhabiting the
Himalayan region thousands of years ago.
These technological advancements have opened up new avenues for inquiry and discovery, allowing us to answer questions that were previously beyond our reach. As a result, archaeological science has entered an exciting era of exploration and innovation. Personally, I view myself as a fieldworker—an excavator who uncovers artifacts and generates ideas. However, it's through collaboration with specialists utilizing cutting-edge technologies that we can truly unlock the secrets hidden within the material we recover.
Can you discuss the importance of interdisciplinary collaboration in your research endeavors and how it has enriched your understanding of the Himalayan region?
Interdisciplinary collaboration lies at the heart of my research endeavors in the Himalayan region, and it has played a crucial role in enriching our understanding of the past. Traditionally, archaeology was often approached as a standalone discipline, focused solely on excavation and interpretation. However, the advent of interdisciplinary collaboration has transformed the field by bringing together scholars from various disciplines and leveraging diverse technologies to tackle complex questions about the past.
For me, interdisciplinary collaboration means recognizing that no single discipline holds all the answers. Instead, it involves harnessing the expertise and insights of specialists from different fields to collectively address research questions. For example, in my own work, I collaborate closely with experts in ancient DNA analysis. Before embarking on a project, we engage in extensive discussions to outline our research goals and determine the most effective methods for data collection and analysis. This collaborative approach not only enhances the quality of our research but also fosters intellectual exchange and innovation.
Interdisciplinary collaboration extends beyond the mere application of technologies or methodologies; it involves a convergence of perspectives and approaches. By bringing together scholars with diverse backgrounds, we can examine research problems from multiple angles and gain deeper insights into complex phenomena. This collaborative process often leads to new discoveries and novel interpretations that would not have been possible through isolated disciplinary approaches alone.
As an educator, I emphasize the importance of interdisciplinary collaboration to my students. I encourage them to cultivate networks of scholars from different disciplines and to embrace the value of collaborative problem-solving. Ultimately, I believe that interdisciplinary collaboration is essential for advancing knowledge and addressing the multifaceted challenges of archaeological research in the Himalayan region and beyond.
Could you highlight some of your
most notable findings or breakthroughs from your research in Nepal? How have
these discoveries contributed to our understanding of the region's history and
culture?
Through my research in Nepal, we've made several significant discoveries that have reshaped our understanding of the region's history and culture. One standout finding confirms that the earliest inhabitants of the Himalayas migrated from the north, specifically from the Tibetan Plateau. This revelation provides crucial insights into the demographic origins of Himalayan populations, dispelling previous uncertainties.
Additionally, our excavations in Upper Mustang, particularly at sites like Samdzong, have unearthed remarkable artifacts such as gold masks and elaborately decorated wooden coffins. These artifacts not only showcase the rich ritual and religious practices of ancient people which also highlights the interconnectedness of cultures in the region.
Our research has revealed evidence of extensive trade networks linking Upper Mustang to distant regions, with excavated tombs yielding artifacts sourced from as far as Sri Lanka and the Middle East. These findings challenge the notion of Upper Mustang as isolated and instead reveal its active participation in long-distance trade networks dating back thousands of years.
Overall, these discoveries provide valuable insights into the complexity and interconnectedness of ancient civilizations in the Himalayan region, shedding light on cultural exchange, religious beliefs, and economic activities. As archaeologists, uncovering these connections and answering age-old questions fuels our passion for exploration and discovery.
What are your thoughts on the future
trajectory of archaeological research in the Himalayan region? Are there any
pressing questions or areas of exploration that you believe warrant further
investigation?
The future trajectory of archaeological research in the Himalayan region
holds immense potential for further discovery and understanding. While my own
work has primarily focused on Upper Mustang, it's crucial to acknowledge that
there are vast areas across the Himalayas where archaeological exploration is
minimal or nonexistent. One pressing question is the extent to which our
findings in Mustang apply to other regions within the Himalayan landscape.
Exploring these areas could provide insights into earlier human occupations and
cultural dynamics across the region.
Another area ripe for investigation is the interaction between the Harappan
civilization and the Himalayan foothill regions. While we have some historical
records, such as those from the Ashokan Period, there remains a significant gap
in our understanding of earlier periods and the development of human societies
in places like the Kathmandu Valley. Understanding when people first settled in
these areas and how they adapted to their environments is essential for
reconstructing the region's prehistoric past.
Furthermore, there is a need to fill the gaps in our knowledge concerning
the middle ranges of the Himalayas. These areas have received comparatively
little attention in terms of archaeological research, leaving us with limited
information about past human activities and cultural developments.
It's essential to foster the growth of archaeology in Nepal, both at the academic level and in terms of heritage management. Developing educational programs and initiatives to expand archaeological research across the country will be critical for uncovering the rich history and cultural heritage of the Himalayan region. I am hopeful that with continued efforts and investment, we can broaden our understanding of the region's past and contribute to the preservation and appreciation of its archaeological heritage.
Is your research in Nepal finished, or do you plan to keep going?
My research in Nepal is far from over—it's poised to continue with new
projects and collaborations on the horizon. In the near future, a team of
French archaeologists will be undertaking work in Lower Mustang later this
year, contributing further to our understanding of the region's rich
archaeological heritage.
As for my own endeavors, I am gearing up for another project that will take
me westward toward Humla, specifically in the Limi area. My focus will be on a
fascinating period in Himalayan history known as the Little Ice Age, which
spanned from approximately 1200 AD to 1800 AD. During this time, global
temperatures dropped significantly, prompting widespread migration as people
sought refuge in more hospitable environments.
Of particular interest to me is the concept of "beyuls"—sacred
hidden lands revered by Tibetan Buddhists as places of refuge. As climate
pressures intensified on the Tibetan Plateau, populations migrated into these
hidden valleys in Nepal, seeking sanctuary and sustenance. I am eager to study
this migration process and its impact on the cultural landscape of the region.
While I have yet to finalize the specific area of focus for my research—whether it be in Langtang, Drachula, or Humla—I am excited about the possibilities that lie ahead. Each of these regions offers unique insights into the dynamics of migration, cultural exchange, and adaptation during the Little Ice Age. Through interdisciplinary collaboration and meticulous fieldwork, I am confident that we will uncover valuable insights into this pivotal period of Himalayan history.
Do you also view the concept of beyul as something spiritual, like I do?
Yes, I agree with your perspective on the concept of beyuls. In Tibetan
Buddhist tradition, beyuls are indeed regarded as spiritual sanctuaries
accessible only to those who have attained a certain level of enlightenment.
Tibetan lamas often speak of beyuls as hidden lands imbued with spiritual
significance, where one can experience profound connections to the divine.
However, it's also worth noting that the notion of beyuls can have tangible
manifestations in the physical landscape. While some beyuls may exist solely as
spiritual concepts, there are instances where real geographical locations are
associated with the idea of beyuls. These locations may hold cultural
significance and be revered as sacred sites by local communities.
The question of whether people actually move into these physical beyuls or if they remain purely spiritual places is complex and multifaceted. It's likely that beyuls represent a blend of spiritual beliefs and tangible landscapes, each influencing the other in profound ways.
How do you intend to incorporate the concept of beyul into your research?
What approach will you take to explore it?
Addressing the concept of beyul in my research will involve a multi-faceted
approach that combines remote sensing techniques with on-the-ground survey and
analysis. The first step will be to gather satellite imagery of potential beyul
locations identified in Tibetan literature. These images will provide valuable
insights into the landscape features and geographical characteristics of these
areas, guiding our initial exploration.
Once potential beyul sites have been identified, the next phase of research
will involve conducting extensive on-the-ground surveys. This will entail
physically walking the landscape to assess surface features and identify
archaeological evidence that aligns with the time frame of the Little Ice Age
(1200 to 1800 AD). This could include examining the presence of ancient
structures, changes in agricultural practices, and soil composition.
To further investigate these findings, soil samples will be collected and
analyzed to determine the timing of agricultural development and the
introduction of new crops in these areas. This interdisciplinary approach will
allow us to integrate archaeological, environmental, and historical data to
gain a comprehensive understanding of the cultural and environmental dynamics
during the Little Ice Age.
Collaboration will be key to the success of this research endeavor. By
working closely with experts in remote sensing, archaeology, environmental
science, and historical studies, we can leverage a diverse range of
methodologies and perspectives to address the complex questions surrounding the
concept of beyul and its significance in Himalayan history.
Finally Is there anything important that we haven't covered in our discussion today, or any additional insights or experiences you'd like to share that haven't been addressed by the questions so far?
The development of archaeology in Nepal is indeed crucial for
preserving and understanding the rich cultural heritage of the country. While
there may be limited job opportunities in archaeology, fostering local
expertise and training Nepali scholars in this field is essential for ensuring
that the country's archaeological sites and artifacts are studied and protected
by those who have a deep connection to their cultural significance.
It's important for the people of Nepal to take ownership of their
archaeological heritage and to actively participate in its exploration and
preservation. This not only empowers local communities but also ensures that
diverse perspectives and insights are brought to bear on archaeological
research.
I am hopeful for the future of archaeology in Nepal and hope to see
continued efforts to promote education and training in this field within the
country. By investing in local expertise and fostering collaboration between
Nepali scholars and international researchers, we can work together to uncover
the hidden treasures of Nepal's past and ensure that they are safeguarded for
future generations to appreciate and learn from.